The invisible city
It must have been during my student days that I read the book Invisible Cities by Italo Calvino. To be honest, I didn't fully understand it, but I was intrigued by it. Calvino presents Marco Polo - the Venetian - as the narrator. The famous traveler describes all the cities he has visited on his journeys as an envoy to the Asian Emperor Kublai Khan. What fascinated me was how he imbedded the history of a city in his descriptions, somehow encapsulating concepts like life and death, memory and loss. This theme highlights the way cities are not just physical spaces but also repositories of memories, history, and even the shadows of those who are no longer alive. Could our interest in cemeteries stem from the fact that they help us better understand the city of the living? We use our last trip to Rome to illustrate this. Incidentally, Rome is also a city where Italo Calvino - born in Cuba to Italian parents - lived for many years.
One of the most remarkable cemeteries in Rome is one that not everyone dares to visit or feels comfortable in. Beneath the church of Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini on Via Veneto, near Piazza Barberini, lies the Capuchin Crypt. It is a small space consisting of several tiny chapels, containing the skeletal remains of an estimated 3,700 bodies, believed to be Capuchin monks buried here by their Order. ‘Buried’ might not be the first word that comes to mind when you see the arrangement of bones and skulls in the various chapels.
When the Capuchin friars arrived at the church in 1631, they moved from their old monastery to this location. They brought 300 carts full of the remains of deceased brothers. It is said that Father Michael of Bergamo oversaw the arrangement of the bones in the crypt. By order of Pope Urban VIII, soil from Jerusalem was placed in the crypt. When monks died after the crypt was put into use, the longest-buried monk was exhumed to make room for the newly deceased, who was buried without a coffin. The exhumed bones were added to the decorative arrangements. Bodies typically spent 30 years decomposing in the ground before being unearthed, and their bones were then arranged along the walls. The Capuchins would gather here every evening to pray before going to bed. The crypt, or ossuary, now holds the remains of monks buried between 1500 and 1870, a time when the Roman Catholic Church allowed burials in and beneath churches. From 1851 onward, the crypt was only open to the public (for an entrance fee) during the week following All Souls’ Day. As of 2022, the crypt is open to the public daily, except on certain holidays.
There are six different chapels. One is the Chapel of the Resurrection, featuring a painting of Jesus raising Lazarus from the dead, framed by various parts of the human skeleton. This is the largest space where Mass is celebrated and no bones are stacked here. However, this space does contain the grave of the Papal Zouaves who died defending the Papal States in the Battle of Porta Pia. Then, there are the Chapels of Skulls, Pelvises, Legs, Thighs, and finally, the Chapel of the Three Skeletons. In this last chapel, a sign hangs in five languages: "What you are now, we once were; what we are now, you shall be." It has something macabre about it, but isn’t that simply because we are not used to seeing human remains above ground? The Capuchin Order aims to emphasise the rapid passage of life on earth and human mortality. It is both an artistic expression and a way to keep and honour the many monks who came before them. And I might not be supposed to say this, but these motifs are simply beautiful. To me, they also serve as proof that, at our core, we as humans are not so different from one another - especially when reduced to bones - and together, we can create something truly remarkable.
One of the surprises of our last visit to Rome was our trip to Cimitero Teutonico, within Vatican City. We saw endless lines of visitors waiting to enter St. Peter’s Basilica. Fortunately, we had visited this church years ago, back when the lines were much shorter! We had read about a cemetery for Germans and Flemish inside Vatican City, which could be visited. Located on the southern side of St. Peter’s Basilica, it is guarded by the Swiss Guard, the pontifical security unit of Vatican City. This guard consists of Swiss Roman Catholic volunteers, who must be at least 174 cm tall, between 19 and 30 years old, and must serve for at least two years. During this period, they live in the barracks and hold Vatican citizenship. They wear stunning uniforms in gold-yellow, blue, and red. We presented our passports to two guards, were addressed in German, and were allowed to walk right in.
The cemetery’s official name is Campo Santo dei Teutonici e dei Fiamminghi (Cemetery of the Germans and Flemish). A sign at the entrance provides the following information:
“The oldest German national foundation in Rome, established on the grounds of the Neronian Circus. Here, Christians suffered martyrdom in the year 68 AD. First mentioned as Schola Francorum in 799. Founded as an Archconfraternity, whose members come from German-speaking, Dutch, and Flemish cultural regions and have the right to burial here. The church was consecrated in 1500 to Our Lady of Sorrows. Since 1876, the adjacent buildings have housed a scientific priest college, and since 1888, the Roman Institute of the Görres Society.” The Schola Francorum is a foundation established for the benefit of Frankish pilgrims and dates back to the 8th century. In 1579, the Brotherhood was elevated to an Archconfraternity by Pope Gregory XIII. This Brotherhood was initially open only to residents of the Holy Roman Empire. Today, most members are Germans and Austrians, with a few Belgians and Dutch among them.
After the crowds of St. Peter’s Square, it was a relief to step into the walled grounds of this small cemetery. Volunteers were restoring grave monuments, creating a striking scene: people lying on their stomachs, brushes in hand, working on the tombstones. They all spoke German. We wandered around to absorb the atmosphere and to check whether we recognised any names on the monuments. One name that was previously unknown to us but turned out to be quite remarkable was that of a 16th century sculptor: Jacob Corneliszoon Cobaert (Coppe Fiammingo), buried in 1615. What struck us the most, however, was the grave of Monsignor Dr. Herman Schaepman. To be honest, we mainly knew his name from street signs in the Netherlands. He was a Dutch poet, Roman Catholic priest, theologian, and politician. He played a crucial role in Catholic emancipation in the Netherlands, as he was the first priest to become a member of the Dutch Parliament. Schaepman passed away in Rome at the age of 58 and was buried in this cemetery. The great Dutch statesman Abraham Kuyper sent a telegram to Rome after his passing with the words: Quis non fleret? ("Who would not weep?").
Abraham Kuyper is, surprisingly, a connecting factor to another grave, that of Petrus Albert Kasteel (1901–2003). He was a Dutch journalist, resistance fighter during World War II, writer, and diplomat (serving in Curaçao, Chile, Ireland, and Israel). He earned his PhD in political and social sciences in Leuven with a dissertation on this statesman. Until his death at an advanced age, Kasteel lived with his wife and their son, Mgr. Karel Kasteel, on the Via della Conciliazione in Rome, just a stone’s throw from the Vatican. Their hospitable apartment was well known among Dutch bishops and among the many who, during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s, were concerned about developments in the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands.
It is also worth mentioning that an 80-year-old Belgian beggar, Willy Herteleer (1935–2015), was buried here with the permission of Pope Francis after passing away in Rome. And in early January 2018, a second Belgian homeless man, Cesar Willy De Vroe, was also laid to rest at Campo Santo. He died on January 4, 2018, after living on the streets of Rome for thirty years. Rich and poor, far from their birthplace, come together here.
Contrary to what one might expect - since in Paris, the building with this name is well known as a burial place for celebrities - the Pantheon in Rome is not the final resting place of famous Italians. It was founded during the Roman era by Emperor Hadrian. The original building dated back to 27 BC and was constructed under the consulship of Marcus Agrippa. After suffering fires and lightning strikes, the structure had to be rebuilt several times, and ultimately, Emperor Hadrian completely reconstructed the Pantheon between 119 and 125 AD, giving it its current round shape behind the portico. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Pantheon remained in the possession of the Byzantine emperors, although they no longer held actual power in Rome. In 609 AD, Emperor Phocas donated the temple to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a church, the Santa Maria ad Martyres (Saint Mary of the Martyrs). This is the reason why the Pantheon was never demolished, unlike most other non-Christian temples in Rome, which were destroyed.
As architects, we cannot resist sharing something about this remarkable building, particularly the round section known as the rotunda. The dome consists of five rings with coffers and is primarily supported by eight columns. It is constructed from masonry and unreinforced concrete and features a central opening, the oculus, with a diameter of 8.7 m (28.5 feet). This opening is truly open, meaning that rain can enter, although not much water actually makes its way inside. The floor is slightly concave to allow rainwater to drain toward the centre. The diameter of the dome is equal to the height from the floor to the oculus: 43.30 m (142 feet). To reduce the weight of the dome, its walls become progressively thinner as they rise, and lighter materials were used at the top. The shell of the dome is 1.2 m (3.9 feet) thick at the oculus and rests upon 7 m (23 foot) thick walls. At the bottom, heavy basalt was used, while at the top near the oculus, the builders used cement mixed with crushed pumice: a material so light it floats on water. The dimensions of the structure were precisely calculated so that every year, on April 21 - the date on which, according to legend, the city of Rome was founded - the sunlight at noon falls exactly on the entrance portal.
Various sources mention that since the Renaissance, some people have been buried in the Pantheon, but it is difficult to determine exactly how many. There are not many, at any rate. The most famous person from that period is the painter Raphael (1483–1520). He had created numerous artistic works for the Vatican and was involved in the preservation of many ancient monuments in Rome. Pope Leo X fulfilled the painter’s wish to be buried in the Pantheon, as Raphael had fallen in love with the building. Additionally, two kings of Italy are buried in the Pantheon: Vittorio Emanuele II (1820–1878), Umberto I (1844–1900) and his wife, Queen Margherita (1841–1925).
A greater contrast is hardly imaginable between Campo Santo and Campo Verano. Campo Verano is located north of the main train station (Termini), along the Circonvallazione Tiburtina, near the Basilica of Saint Lawrence Outside the Walls. It is Rome’s largest cemetery and one of the biggest we have ever seen. We have to admit something: we got lost in this huge cemetery, right when we needed to catch a train. On the map, the station and cemetery seemed right next to each other, but we didn’t account for the fact that the cemetery is on higher ground and that it is a terminus station. We had no idea where we were or how to get out. At that time, mobile phones didn’t exist, and the abstract maps within the cemetery were no help in figuring out the shortest route to the station. Somehow, we made it to our train, barely. Unfortunately, the special horse-drawn tram line, which had been introduced in 1879, was no longer in service, otherwise it would have been both easier and more enjoyable to get around.
This cemetery was designed and built between 1807 and 1812 by the architect and city planner Giuseppe Valadier (1762–1839). It was commissioned by the Napoleonic administration and, in accordance with the law at the time, was placed outside the city walls. After the French left Italy, the Papal States took over management of the cemetery.
The name Campo Verano originates from the Roman Republic era, when this land belonged to the distinguished family of Senator Verani. Under Pope Gregory XVI and Pope Pius IX, the cemetery underwent expansion. Unfortunately, Campo Verano suffered significant war damage during the bombing of July 19, 1943.
The main entrance is located on the west side. The gateway is impossible to miss, marked by four large statues representing Meditation, Hope, Love, and Silence. These statues were created by Francesco Vespinagni (1842–1899). There are multiple entrances, but they are far less monumental. These secondary entrances are accessible by car and even have two-way traffic lanes. With cars driving through the cemetery, this place feels like part of the city of the living. It seems strange to us to break the serene atmosphere with automobile traffic but given the vast size of the cemetery (and the age of many visitors), this setup is entirely understandable.
The main axis leading from the monumental gate has an actual street name: Via del Verano. Not far from the gate, you reach a grand enclosed space with arcades. Graves can be found both within the arcades and in the open field at the centre. The Via del Verano ends at the Chiesa di S. Maria della Misericordia. Beyond this, slopes and stairways lead to a large field filled with cypress trees and tombs of various shapes and sizes. Walking further east, you feel as though you are transitioning from a villa district to a post-war high-rise neighborhood.
Here, dozens of multi-story buildings house grave monuments and burial niches. Some are arranged in courtyard structures, others in chambers or even star-shaped formations. From above, they resemble apartment buildings, but they are homes for the dead, not the living.
There are remarkable graves, as is typical in Italian cemeteries, and several famous figures are buried here. Among them is actor Marcello Mastroianni, best known for the 1960 film La Dolce Vita, which was set in Rome.
It is hardly surprising that Campo Verano is mainly a place for the Roman Catholic community. However, there is also a smaller section for the Roman Jewish community. Since 1738, there has also been another cemetery, for the Protestant community, with the beautiful name Cimitero Acattolico (Non-Catholic Cemetery). This cemetery is located in the south of the city, near the Pyramid of Caius Cestius, close to the former train station and now metro station Roma Porta S. Paolo. The pyramid is a funerary monument for the Roman Gaius Cestius Epulo(nius), who died in 12 BC. He was fascinated by Egypt and its pyramids and stipulated in his will that a tomb in the shape of a pyramid should be built using his inheritance. With a base of 29.5 m by 29.5 m and a height of 36.5 m, it is not something you can easily overlook. It was restored in 2014-2015. The way the pyramid was incorporated into the Aurelian Walls (271-275 AD) looks very odd. Emperor Aurelian wanted to build the walls as quickly as possible, so existing buildings were simply integrated into the structure. Since the city wall continued to be used for defense for a long time, the pyramid has also been preserved.
Since the 18th century, non-Catholics were buried in the Prati del Popolo Romano (Meadows of the Roman People) because they were not allowed to be buried inside churches. Additionally, they did not want to be buried in the paupers' cemetery or alongside those who had not received the last sacraments. Thus, a search began for a location that was marginal enough, yet still maintained some dignity. This place was found next to the ancient city walls, in the Testaccio district. Until 1765, monuments were not allowed, as the site was supposed to remain a meadow. Up until the 19th century, the cemetery resembled a garden with a rural atmosphere.
After the unification of Italy in 1870, Rome’s population grew, and pressure increased to use urban space for housing construction. Thanks to the intervention of diplomats and foreign embassies, the cemetery was preserved. Even though it was a cemetery for Protestants, it remained under strict papal supervision until 1870. All epitaphs had to be submitted for approval by a papal commission, and crosses on graves were strictly forbidden. These regulations only ended with the abolition of the Papal States. In 1921, official guidelines were established for the Protestant Cemetery, stating that the site was ‘made available to all foreign states with Protestant and Orthodox Catholic citizens.’ In 1953, this was amended to ‘non-Catholic citizens.’ Today, approximately 4,000 people are buried here.
To reach the cemetery entrance, you must pass through the city walls and walk around the pyramid to Via Caio Cestio. Upon entering, friendly volunteers warmly welcome visitors and in our case, they were British. They ask where you are from and whether you are looking for a particular grave. Near the office, there is a small shop where you can buy a map of the cemetery and booklets. The cemetery even publishes its own magazine. The map, which of course we purchased, shows every single grave. Each tombstone is carefully illustrated, including its distinct features, and the legend lists nearly 150 names of the deceased. Many of the graves belong to foreigners who lived and worked in Rome, including numerous artists, writers, actors, and diplomats. The map is designed as a folded leaflet, folded like an accordion.
If you turn left after passing through the gate, you will arrive at the oldest section of the cemetery: a gently sloping hill with a few scattered graves in the grass, offering an unobstructed view of the ancient walls and the pyramid behind them. The oldest grave in this section belongs to George Langton (1713–1738), an Oxford student. In 1803, the eldest son of the Protestant Wilhelm von Humboldt passed away. Humboldt, who lived in Rome and served as the Prussian envoy at the papal court, is best known as the namesake of the Humboldt University in Berlin. When his second son died four years later, Pope Pius VII granted him a piece of land near the pyramid, so he could bury both sons in peace. According to tradition, Von Humboldt erected a fence around the two tombstones, which marked the official beginning of the Protestant Cemetery.
The most famous grave in the cemetery is that of the English poet John Keats (1795–1821). Keats lost both his parents at a young age, and in 1818, his brother also died, like their mother, of tuberculosis. When Keats himself fell ill, his doctor advised him to move to Italy. In 1820, at the invitation of fellow poet P.B. Shelley, he traveled to Rome, where he died on February 23, 1821. His grave is beside that of his longtime friend, the painter Joseph Severn (1793–1879). Their graves share the same plot.
On Keats’ gravestone, the following inscription appears beneath an engraving of a harp with missing strings, symbolising his prematurely ended life and artistic career, "This grave contains all that was mortal of a young English poet, who on his death bed in the bitterness of his heart at the Malicious power of his enemies, desired these words to be engraven on his tomb stone: Here lies one whose name was writ in water." On Severn’s gravestone, beneath a relief of a painter’s palette with brushes, it reads, "Devoted friend and death-bed companion of John Keats, whom he lived to see numbered among the Immortal Poets of England."
Within the cemetery walls, there is also a monument dedicated to Keats, featuring his portrait. This was added later and bears the inscription,
"Keats! If thy cherished name be ‘writ in water’
Each drop has fallen from some mourner’s cheek
A sacred tribute; such as heroes seek
Though oft in vain – for dazzling deeds of slaughter
Sleep on! Not honoured less for Epitaph so meek!"
His friend Shelley (1792-1822) had settled in Pisa. He drowned at sea with a friend. He, too, is buried here, but in the other part of the cemetery. This section runs parallel to the city wall and slopes up towards it. This provides a very clear view of all the tombstones. Shelley is buried quite close to the old part of the cemetery, right up against the wall. This section of the cemetery is almost rectangular; at its widest point, there are 18 rows of graves. Along the wall facing the street, graves are placed within the wall and among the greenery. At the far western end, there is a chapel.
Upon entering, we mentioned that we were Dutch. The volunteer enthusiastically told us that, in that case, we would certainly want to visit the grave of Pier Pander (1864-1919). Do you know that feeling of embarrassment when a foreigner knows a fellow countryman better than you do? That’s what happened to us there. We had never heard his name before. So, what do you do? You go looking for his grave. A simple grave, with just his name, birth, and death date. Pier Pander was a Dutch sculptor and medal designer. In 1885, he won the Prix de Rome for sculpture, but around the same time, a serious illness left him disabled. In 1893, Pander moved to Rome, where he set up a studio. He regularly traveled to the Netherlands, where he became particularly well-known after designing the 1898 coin featuring the image of Queen Wilhelmina. He died of tuberculosis in Rome. His legacy was left to the city of Leeuwarden in the Netherlands. He had designed a temple for Leeuwarden (now the Pier Pander Temple), which was built after his death. It is now part of the nearby Pier Pander Museum. We know what we’ll be visiting the next time we go to Leeuwarden.
There are not many Dutch graves here, but there are many from other countries. There is a national grave for the Danes, the Germans, the Swedes, and the Greeks. There are also some general Russian graves. You can hardly believe your eyes, there is a great deal of remarkable sculpture. This is not surprising, as many artists and writers/poets are buried here. The grave of Devereux Plantagenet Cockburn (1829-1850), a Scottish soldier who died at the age of 21, is impossible to miss. He lies life-sized on a sarcophagus, with his dog and a book. Equally striking is the statue of a boy in short trousers on a piece of stone. Georges Volkoff looks over his shoulder, holding a book loosely in his lap, gazing across the entire length of the cemetery.
The volunteers told us we should also visit the grave of the son of Johan Wolfgang (von) Goethe. The writer traveled to Italy in 1786 to escape work pressures. According to the story, he quickly grew bored in Rome and stayed only briefly. His son, Julius August Walter von Goethe, was the only one of Goethe’s five children to survive beyond infancy. In April 1830, he traveled to Italy with his father. He visited all the major cities. In Rome, he fell ill and died soon after of smallpox. He was buried here by the German-speaking community. His gravestone reads: “GOETHE FILIVS / PATRI / ANTEVERTENS / OBIIT / ANNOR[VM] XL / MDCCCXXX” (Goethe Junior died—preceding his father—in his 40th year in 1830).
You could wander here all day. There are striking sculptures expressing the grief of the bereaved, and kneeling priests at a cross. Some graves are simple, where the text leaves the deepest impression. For example, Emily Elizabeth’s grave bears the inscription:
"The wife of William Bradley Esq. of Sydney, Australia. Who died at Rome after a long and painful illness on the 22nd of April 1847 in the 37th year of her age." So far from home, to meet such a painful end. So many lives, so many stories.
We wanted to visit one more remarkable monument in Rome. This decision was partly influenced by our recent research on the Dominican Sisters of Voorschoten from the Congregation of Saint Catherine of Siena. She was born in Siena in 1347 and died in Rome in 1380. Both Jan and I have worked on various projects for the Congregation, and wrote about it in our last story, so it seemed fitting to visit the place where she is venerated. The tomb of Saint Catherine of Siena lies beneath the high altar of the Basilica Santa Maria sopra Minerva. It is hard to be enthusiastic about the church’s façade. It is a plain Renaissance façade in soft pink, with three doors and three round windows. You would never guess that behind this austere exterior lies the only Gothic church in Rome. The church has a wide central nave, separated from the narrower side aisles by columns. The most striking feature is the ceiling: a series of cross vaults from the mid-15th century. In the 19th century, it was painted celestial blue with golden stars.
Who was Catherine, and why is she honoured? This mystic lived from 1347 to 1380 and was a member of the Mantellate, a lay order of Dominican women. She was born as the 25th child of a cloth dyer’s family in Siena (Italy) in 1347. From a young age, Catherine had visions. She vowed to remain a virgin and to serve God. At 16, she chose a secluded life of prayer and penance. The cell she lived in at her family home in Siena can still be visited today. Around 1365, she received the Dominican habit. She left her physical cell at age 23 but never abandoned her inner solitude. She dedicated herself to feeding the poor and nursing the sick, while also guiding sinners toward righteousness. Catherine was not only strong-willed but also charismatic. A network of followers, both men and women from all social classes, formed around her. She became an influential figure in Siena and beyond.
Initially, she was regarded as a visionary and miracle worker. Later, she was also consulted on matters of governance. She publicly advocated for peace between Italian city-states, called for moral reform in both church and state, and persuaded the pope to return from Avignon to Rome. In 1377, she founded a community of women. She died in Rome in 1380, leaving behind hundreds of letters as well as her book, The Dialogue of Divine Providence. This book reveals her passion for truth and her compassion for humanity. She was canonised in 1461. In 1970, she was declared a Doctor of the Church, and in 1999, she was named one of the patron saints of Europe, alongside Bridget of Sweden and Edith Stein.
Catherine’s tomb monument dates back to 1430 and is attributed to the artist Isaia da Pisa. It is a remarkable piece. The white marble statue of Catherine is life-sized. She lies in a glass case placed beneath the altar. In front of the glass is a colonnade-like structure with gold arches, which continues on the altar as a frame with large vase-like objects. The altar stands on an elevated platform, a few steps higher than the nave. At the back of the altar, there is a table with notes and a pen, where visitors can write a message to leave for Catherine. The door of the tomb monument can be opened, allowing visitors to bow and enter to place their note on the statue. While we are there, we see a Dominican sister stepping inside while another sister takes a photo of her from the other side. Catherine’s body rests in this shrine, but her head is preserved behind a golden grille in the Basilica of St. Dominic in Siena.
Thus, our journey through the hidden stories of the invisible city began with the visible bones of the monks and ended with the unseen bones of this extraordinary saint. This search once again brought us new stories about the history-laden city of Rome.
2025